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美国纽约大都会艺术博物馆展品查阅
美国纽约大都会艺术博物馆展品查阅
美国大都会艺术博物馆中的24万件展品,图片展示以及中文和英文双语介绍(中文翻译仅供参考)
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品名(中)蟾蜍
品名(英)Toad
入馆年号1941年,41.190.47
策展部门欧洲雕塑和装饰艺术European Sculpture and Decorative Arts
创作者
创作年份公元 1500 - 公元 1599
创作地区
分类雕塑青铜(Sculpture-Bronze)
尺寸整体 (confirmed): 2 × 3 1/2 × 5 英寸 (5.1 × 8.9 × 12.7 厘米)
介绍(中)1500年左右,在意大利,小规模青铜生产的复兴与人们对自然历史的重新兴趣相吻合,螃蟹、青蛙、蟾蜍、蛇、蝾螈和其他各种动植物的大量生命模型就证明了这一点。在帕多瓦的人文中心,这一点最为真实,在那里,动物和植物标本的铸造反映了对自然现象的同时科学调查。这些铸件,不仅是青铜的,还有铅、锡、银和金,可能在学者的研究中起到了镇纸或墨水井的实际作用;作为分类辅助工具;或者作为更大的雕塑作品的组成部分。自1927年Leo Planiscig关于Riccio的有影响力的专著出版以来,许多小型青铜铸件都被分配给了他和他的工作室,尽管几乎没有证据证实这种联系。[1] 无论其起源在哪里,生命铸造的实践都向北传播到纽伦堡的Vischer和Jamnitzer工作室,以及法国的Bernard Palissy工作室

作为一种古老的实践,Cennino Cennini在文艺复兴时期的《Il libro dell’arte》中首次提到了终身铸造,该书可能写于1400年左右的帕多瓦。尽管Cennini把大部分注意力都放在了铸造人脸和身体上,但他也指出,"你可以同样地单独铸造任何成员,一只手臂、一只手、一只脚、一条腿、一只鸟、一只野兽或任何种类的动物或鱼。但这些动物一定已经死了,因为它们既没有站立的感觉,也没有站立的坚定性。"。"[2]现代早期生命铸造的技术和过程直到最近才开始根据幸存的教学手稿和其他技术证据进行重建。[3]

一般来说,动物必须是最近死亡的,可能会被氨或尿液弄晕,这样它才能柔韧地塑造成所需的形状,但仍然足够坚韧,能够承受这个过程。在动物周围形成霉菌后,它的身体被烧毁,煅烧后的残骸被清除。然后,从这个负面印象中形成了一个蜡模型。在没有有机材料证据的情况下,很难确定一个物体是从生命中铸造的,尽管特征越清晰、越详细,可能性就越大。模具线条的存在,即青铜中间部分的小接缝,也可能表明这件作品是用两件式模具终身铸造的。[4]

青铜蛙或张开嘴巴的蟾蜍被用作墨水井。我们举的两个例子,嘴巴紧紧地闭上,可能起到了镇纸的作用。背上有一只较小蟾蜍的蟾蜍在细节上表现出一定的弹性和不精确性,这表明它在蜡像中有很多徒手雕刻,即使它最初是以死去的动物为模型的。墙体厚度不一致;在一些地方,比如下面,可以看到完整的核心。蟾蜍及其后代的配对为物体增加了情感电荷,体现了家庭纽带、父母和孩子以及再生和繁殖的本质。[5]

在文艺复兴时期的想象中,青蛙和蟾蜍被认为经历了一个凝结和腐烂的循环,每年春天凝固成形体,每年秋天又融化回泥土中。例如,法国博物学家皮埃尔·贝隆宣称,"我觉得青蛙最令人钦佩的地方是,在大约六个月结束时,它会变成淤泥。当春天到来时,它们会再次聚集在一起:尽管如此,它们也会繁殖并产蛋和小青蛙。"6同样,意大利医生和数学家Girolamo Cardano观察到,"青蛙是从不纯的水中出生的,有时是从雨水中出生的:然而,人们认为,一定数量的不完美动物是由于腐败而出生的,没有种子。"[7]

这些生物神秘的生成过程,在这种过程中,液体在极端条件下变成固体,在青铜铸造本身的炼金术过程中发现了相似之处,因为熔融的金属奇迹般地转化为凝固的试样。强调养育子女的主题可能会引起这些联想。蟾蜍背上背着一只较小的蟾蜍的场景有多种,尽管远非完全相同。但是,尽管青铜蛙和蟾蜍被广泛生产,但其父母和后代的自负却足够引人注目,以至于经销商C·G·库珀在菲茨威廉出售一个版本时评论了它的稀有性。[8]

青铜器经常被绘制或以其他方式构图,以模拟自然色彩的效果,这就是在我们的蟾蜍身上看到的棕色光泽的目的。点画图案很可能是在蜡中产生的。更清晰的特征表明,蟾蜍是从一个真实的标本中铸造出来的,随后进行操作以产生所需的效果。虽然大都会博物馆收藏的两种青铜蟾蜍都可以与十六世纪初的Riccio和巴东环境联系在一起,但几乎没有确切的数据表明它们是在这样一个早期
-JF


脚注
(有关缩短参考文献的关键,请参阅大都会艺术博物馆艾伦、意大利文艺复兴和巴洛克青铜器的参考书目。纽约:大都会艺术馆,2022。)
1。1927年Planiscig,图450-64
2.塞纳尼1899年,第175页
3.参见P.Smith和Beentjes 2010对16世纪晚期法国技术手稿的重要分析。另见Lein 2006和Bennekom 2018。关于自然选角的一般性讨论,请参见Leeds 2005,第20-35页(Frits Scholten)和第64-65页(Martina Droth)
4.P.Smith和Beentjes,2010年,第143–60页
5.贝克和波尔1985,猫。281。
6。Belon 1555,第48-49页
7.卡尔达诺1556年,未注释
8。Fitzwilliam,M.30-1997;见V.Avery和Dillon,2002年,第317页,目录。53,第210页第2条。另见国家美术馆的演员阵容,华盛顿特区,1957.14.88;教皇轩尼诗1965年,第509号,图513。
介绍(英)In Italy, around 1500, the revival of small-scale bronze production dovetailed with a renewed interest in natural history, demonstrated by the large number of lifecasts of crabs, frogs, toads, snakes, salamanders, and other assorted flora and fauna. Nowhere was this truer than in the humanist center of Padua, where casts after zoological and botanical specimens reflected simultaneous scientific investigations into natural phenomena. These casts, not only in bronze but also lead, tin, silver, and gold, may have served practical functions, as paperweights or inkwells in a scholar’s study; as taxonomical aids; or as components of larger sculptural ensembles. Since the publication of Leo Planiscig’s influential monograph on Riccio in 1927, many of these small bronze casts have been assigned to him and his workshop, though there is little evidence to substantiate the connection.[1] Wherever its origins, the practice of lifecasting spread north to the Vischer and Jamnitzer workshops in Nuremberg, and Bernard Palissy’s atelier in France.

An ancient practice, lifecasting is first mentioned in the Renaissance by Cennino Cennini in his Il libro dell’arte, likely written in Padua around 1400. Though Cennini devotes the lion’s share of his attention to casting human faces and bodies, he also notes, “You may similarly cast any member separately, an arm, a hand, a foot, a leg, a bird, a beast, or any kind of animal or fish. But the animals must be dead, because they have neither the sense nor firmness to stand still.”[2] The techniques and processes of early modern lifecasting have only recently begun to be reconstructed based on surviving instructional manuscripts and other technical evidence.[3]

Generally speaking, an animal would have to be recently deceased, perhaps stunned with ammonia or urine, so that it could be pliably molded into the desired form but still hardy enough to withstand the process. After a mold was formed around the animal, its body was burned out and its calcined remains cleared. Then a wax model was formed from this negative impression. Absent evidence of organic materials, it is difficult to pronounce with certainty that an object was cast from life, though the chances are more likely the sharper and more detailed the features. The presence of mold lines, small seams along the bronze’s midsection, may also indicate the work was lifecast with a two-piece mold.[4]

Bronze frogs or toads with gaping maws were used as inkwells. Our two examples, mouths firmly clamped shut, probably served as paperweights. The toad with a smaller toad on its back displays a certain rubberiness and imprecision in its details that suggest much freehand sculpting in the wax, even if it was originally modeled after a dead animal. The walls are of inconsistent thickness; in some spots, like the underside, the intact core is visible. The pairing of a toad and its offspring adds an affective charge to the object, manifesting themes of familial bonds, of parent and child, and of the nature of regeneration and reproduction.[5]

In the Renaissance imagination, frogs and toads were thought to undergo a cycle of congelation and putrefaction, of solidifying into form each spring and fusing back into the mud each autumn. For example, the French naturalist Pierre Belon declared, “that which I find most admirable about the frog is that at the end of about six months it turns back into silt. And when spring arrives, they come together again: nonetheless they also breed and make eggs and little ones.”6 Similarly, the Italian physician and mathematician Girolamo Cardano observed that “frogs are born of impure water and sometimes of rain: it is believed, however, that a certain number of imperfect animals are born, without seed, from corruption.”[7]

The creatures’ enigmatic process of generation, in which liquids turned solid under extreme conditions, found parallels in the alchemical process of bronze casting itself, as molten metal was miraculously transformed into solidified specimens. Highlighting the theme of childrearing could invoke these associations. The subject of a toad carrying a smaller toad on its back is known in multiple, though far from identical, casts. But while solo bronze frogs and toads were produced widely, the parent-progeny conceit was notable enough for the dealer C. G. Copper to remark on its rarity when he sold a version now in the Fitzwilliam.[8]

Bronzes were frequently painted or otherwise patterned to simulate the effects of a naturalistic coloring, the purpose of the brown patination seen on our single toad. The stippling pattern was likely produced in the wax. The sharper features suggest the toad was cast from an actual specimen and manipulated subsequently to produce a desired effect. While both bronze toads in The Met’s collection can be generically linked to Riccio and the Paduan ambient of the early sixteenth century, there is little to date them with any precision to such an early period.
-JF


Footnotes
(For key to shortened references see bibliography in Allen, Italian Renaissance and Baroque Bronzes in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. NY: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2022.)
1. Planiscig 1927, figs. 450–64.
2. Cennini 1899, p. 175.
3. See the important analysis of a late sixteenth-century French technical manuscript in P. Smith and Beentjes 2010. See also Lein 2006 and Bennekom 2018. For general discussions of casting after nature, see Leeds 2005, pp. 20–35 (Frits Scholten) and 64–65 (Martina Droth).
4. P. Smith and Beentjes 2010, pp. 143–60.
5. Beck and Bol 1985, cat. 281.
6. Belon 1555, pp. 48–49.
7. Cardano 1556, n.p.
8. Fitzwilliam, M.30-1997; see V. Avery and Dillon 2002, p. 317, cat. 53, p. 210 n. 2. See also the cast in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., 1957.14.88; Pope-Hennessy 1965, no. 509, fig. 513.
  大都会艺术博物馆,英文 Metropolitan Museum of Art,是美国最大的艺术博物馆,世界著名博物馆,位于美国纽约第五大道的82号大街。
  大都会博物馆回顾了人类自身的文明史的发展,与中国北京的故宫、英国伦敦的大英博物馆、法国巴黎的卢浮宫、俄罗斯圣彼得堡的艾尔米塔什博物馆并称为世界五大博物馆。